What is the relationship between knowledge and power? How does power operate for Foucault?

 Annotated Bibliography

Kirby, M., (2000). Sociology in perspective.], Heinemann Educational.  37 -38

In chapter 2 of this book, the author discusses the field of sociology in relation to individual and the society. He discusses the issue of power in terms of culture, identity and socialization and considers Michel Foucault works and Marxism and their notions of sociology. The issue of power legitimacy in the society and knowledge in cultures is discussed and includes how inequality arises from the imbalances of and knowledge. Foucault’s view of knowledge as a kind of power is also discussed, and which counts as truth.

PATEL, S. (2010). The ISA handbook of diverse sociological traditions. Los Angeles [i.e. Thousand Oaks, Calif.], SAGE Publications. 4-6

The author of the book discusses the many tradition of sociology across the world and more specifically in relation to nation-states. He highlights the reflexive sociology as being the first to start the discussion on the symbiotic relation between power and knowledge. In light of globalization, institutions and knowledge are noted as being reorganized in decisive and new ways. The complexity of dominion and power, the knowledge power relationship is seen to be structured in different ways within various nation states and across the world.

Elliott, A. and Lemert, C., 2014. Introduction to contemporary social theory. Routledge.237-240

 In this book, the authors comprehensively introduces and discourses the contemporary social theory and especially the various theoretical traditions relating to Frankfurt school, globalization and beyond. The authors discourses the sociology of knowledge and power as per the philosophy of Marxism where power is possessed by the various institutions, groups or persons. In their discussion of discourse and culture, they explore the power and knowledge theory where power is seen to be in the possessions of the knowledgeable and elite class, corporations and who interact behind the scene in high circles.

TAYLOR, S., WETHERELL, M., & YATES, S. J. (2001). Discourse theory and practice: a reader. London [u.a.], Sage Publications. 76-78

In this book, the author introduces various classic papers and articles relating to discourses analysis.  The authors gather major figures in discourse charts and research, the major developments and themes present in this emerging field. Specifically, the authors discuses the way Foucault represents the relationship between power, knowledge and truth, in contrast to the historical representation in other theories. They highlight Foucault belief regarding  the power/knowledge discourse especially his concern on how knowledge is put to work.

Bălan, S., 2010. M. Foucault's view on power relations. Cogito-Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 2, pp.38-40.

 This article analyses the issue of power as of great importance in the philosophical work of Michel Foucault. It clearly highlights how his argument parted with how Marxists interpreted power relations and his suggestions that power is not basically something that is possessed by institutions so that they use it to oppress groups or individuals. The article highlights Foucault’s view on how power operates in the daily interactions between the institutions and people , in that the operation of power or its action involve s not a possession but a strategy.

  Relationship between knowledge and power

According to Foucault, Knowledge and power are not independent entities but are both inextricably linked since power is exercised through knowledge and it’s a function of the same.  Knowledge and power are therefore, linked through texts and discourses (TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 76). In this case, discourse involves disciplines and social institutions and is characterized by modernity, post-modernity and tradition. The Genealogy of Power and Archaeology of Knowledge were the major works through which his methodology tries to establish this relationship, where genealogy provides a procession viewpoint on discourse web as opposed to archaeological perspective that offers just a snapshot (TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 76).  To Foucault, the relationship between power and knowledge is established by the Genealogy of Power. The body is the key element in the power relations operations that are based in a political arena. Analyzing discourse practices is important in understanding the link between political practice and the scientific discourse.  Analysis of Genealogy shows that the body is an object of knowledge and is also targeted by exercise of power. A political strategy that involves body’s knowledge and not necessary how it functions is the means through which perception of the body as productive or docile object is obtained.  The attention is placed on diffusion of various power technologies and how they relate to the emergence of various kinds of knowledge. These include the science that has an individual person as an object of study (TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 77).

Therefore, power is not seen as a possession of a dominant class or the sovereign but is a strategy. According to Foucault, power is not an institution or a structure but it involves a strategic situation that is complex and also a force-relations multiplicity, and non-subjective or intentional at the same time. For its existence, power depends on the number of times of resistance and which ought not to be reduced to one focus of rebellion. The Subjugation politics, seen in western societies can also explore the relationship between knowledge and power. Initially, the western legal systems presented how absolute power was incorporated in the sovereignty (PATEL, 2010, 4). For instance, the understanding of prison and punishment as elements of political technology from resistances and rebellions which occurred in almost the entire world during the late 1960s and early 70s represents a specific power technology that was exercised over the body and mind.  A move away from the focus seen in punishment history that is from body to soul indicates appearance of new discipline tool. In this case, there was not liberation of the body from the power’s grip but instead a displacement of the body to a mediatory and secondary position (PATEL, 2010, 5). 

 Hence, the three forms of punishment that historically existed including penal torture, penal incarceration and humanitarian reform show the issue of power subject and knowledge object.  With regard to penal torture, the link between truth and power are presented on the body. Penal incarceration denied individuals their liberty for some time and involved a strategy for transforming people to make them retrained and submissive. This finally leads to transformation of subjugated bodies as knowledge objects (PATEL, 2010, 6). Knowledge can’t be disinterested but is inextricably interdependent with power. In prison, knowledge is derived and them used in an attempt to transform the offender.  In this scenario, focus shifts from offender’s act to criminal’s life, which is a new knowledge subject and power object.  By identifying tendencies, instincts and character, the criminal is perceived to be seriously related to his offence, creating the criminology discourse.  Therefore, power and knowledge are manifested in prison and punishment and completion of particular major statements is a kind of power that is exercises through various techniques, procedures and instruments. Discipline involves wielding power while knowledge leads to technologies through which power is exercised (Elliott and Lemert , 2014,237).

The power knowledge relationship can also be interpreted as a reciprocal legitimization relationship, which can explain the problem core to understanding the modern statehood. Both power and knowledge needs to be legitimized and it should be possible for them to claim credibility and such recognition has to be worthy. Knowledge legitimization just like political power is bound to changes and it is impossible to explain such changes in terms of knowledge content (Kirby, 2000, 37). This means that power is legitimized by knowledge and on the other hand, power is legitimized by knowledge.  Such a symbiotic relationship can be proved, especially in terms of constantly increasing extent to which a reference to knowledge justifies political decisions.  This spurns from energy and environmental policies, new industries location, wealth distributions and financial crises management decisions.  In a society that knowledge-based and very complex, legitimization state power has virtually be through science and knowledge.  This relationship is never a one-way path, and just like power is legitimized by knowledge, most of its legitimization is derived from decisions made by the state such as what is to be learnt in schools, the kind of knowledge need for a candidate to be qualified for a particular public office and what kind of research to be publicly funded (Kirby, 2000, 38).

The relationship between power and knowledge can be structured differently across within nation-states and worldwide, and between traditions. Weberians and Marxists placed more emphasis on the finding the relationship between economic structures and cultural power, while Foucault considered power as existing within a given culture but in relation to various relations between power and knowledge (PATEL, 2010, 4).  Hence, all people find themselves trapped in a web that is complex but of varying discourses, every discourse providing a specific way of understanding the aspects of their behavior. Hence, there are discourses that that provides ways in which people can understand the way they feel themselves as ethnic identities, employees, women or men, hospital users and family members (Elliott and Lemert , 2014,237).  This complex discourse web leads to creation of culture or a relationship between knowledge and power in a given society. The different resistances in the society can be activated by each discourse among the various individuals and social groups.  For instances , the flourishing lesbian culture that has come about in part through resistance to discourses that are dominant and through which heterosexuality is normalized and other overshadowing other kinds of sexuality.  A person’s sense of self-identity really emerges from the manner in which he or she is positioned in terms of a specific discourse of modes of knowledge.  A major result of the relationship between power and knowledge is “the subject’s constitution”. This means that a person’s sense of self-identity is gotten from the relationship between power and knowledge (Elliott and Lemert , 2014,239). According to Foucault, power is not something that the ruling elites or bureaucracy possesses and it is not always concentrated and it is not concentrated in fundamental institutions like the state, corporations and financial institution (PATEL, 2010, 6). Power is relational and is depicted through knowledge systems or discourse.

How does power operate for Foucault

Foucault disagrees with the notion that few or groups people in the society wields power through coercion, dominating sovereign acts or episodic. According to him, power emanates from everywhere and is everywhere meaning that it is pervasive and dispersed. In this sense, power is not an agency or a structure, but a form of “regime of truth” or meta-power present in the society so that it is constantly negotiated or flux (TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 76). The term power-knowledge is an indication that power is created though various accepted truths, scientific understanding and knowledge.  Truth is produced in this world only on the basis of numerous modes of constraints, and it leads to regular power effects.  There is a distinct truth regime in every society including politics of truth that are general, meaning the accepted kinds of discourse and which are made to appear as true and ways which makes one to differentiate what is false and true(TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 77). Power is a boundary that constraints or enables possibilities of a given action and, and individuals’ relative capacities to be aware of and determine their boundaries.  Foucault does not view power as a repressive or coercive thing that force people to do what they do not wish to, a force that is positive, productive and necessary in a society. Indeed, it produces truth rituals, object domains and reality and the person and any knowledge he may gain is needed for this production. Power is something that manifests itself in a particular manner and not something that a person can possess.  Its employment is though a setting like organization, where people act as channels of power but not as the points of power’s application.  In addition, power involves a relation’s network system that comprises of the entire society, but not a relation between the oppressors and oppressed.  People are seen as just power objects but the center that exert such power or resistance (TAYLOR, WETHERELL, & YATES, 2001, 78).

Power does not mean that there is not freedom, that rights are transferred or that all the power of every person is transferred to few people. It does not equate to violence since passivity is the only contrast to violence. Contrary to this, a relationship of power may only be expressed in terms of two components that are indispensible if such a relationship is to continue.   Power involves various actions that are carried out upon another individual’s actions or reaction. Even if violence can form part of power relationships, its actual exercise cannot be termed as violence, but a way upon which an acting subject is acted upon (Bălan, 2010, 38).  Hence, power involves less confrontation between enemies or the relation of one to another than an issue of government. In this case, government refers not only to states management or political structures but also the manner in which individual or group conduct may be directed. To Foucault, freedom is a key component of power since it can only be exercised over subjects who are free and as long as they have freedom (Bălan, 2010, 40). Power cannot operate when a person is in chains, in which case it will be an issue of constraint to physical relationship. The concept of will and uncompromised freedom are at the center of   operation of power.  A state does not majorly own power; instead it creates systems of relations between people in order for a good working of political system. This can explain the replacement of monarch system of power by a democratic one in Europe (Bălan, 2010, 40).

References

Kirby, M., (2000). Sociology in perspective.], Heinemann Educational.  37 -38

PATEL, S. (2010). The ISA handbook of diverse sociological traditions. Los Angeles [i.e. Thousand Oaks, Calif.], SAGE Publications. 4-6

Elliott, A. and Lemert, C., 2014. Introduction to contemporary social theory. Routledge.237-240

TAYLOR, S., WETHERELL, M., & YATES, S. J. (2001). Discourse theory and practice: a reader. London [u.a.], Sage Publications. 76-78

Bălan, S., 2010. M. Foucault's view on power relations. Cogito-Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 2, pp.38-40.

Holmes Institute

Executive summary

    Holmes University in Australia is highly reputable among education institutes not only in Australia but also across the globe. It is nationally recognized by education practitioners following its quality educational facilities and the very well expertise staff. Their stand for not compromising on the education quality has become the trademark for the university and this has led to the high repute for the institute not only in Australia but also outside Australia. This seems to be the major reason as to why there are large applicants from other nations who are taking admission in Holmes institute with an aim of achieving their educational qualification in the sphere of influence in business management and other sectors.

    Holmes Institute is an incorporated multi-sector private contributor of education (Rahayu et al 2006). The institute is committed to offering the highest level of education so as to allow and give power to their learners to seek self-improvement irrespective of their difference in gender, nationality, and values. It has several faculties that are tasked with different roles; these faculties include the Vocational Education and Training faculty, English language Centers, Higher Education Faculty as well as the secondary school education faculty (Holmes institute 2018). Being a multi-sector provider, the institute is well situated as an alternative way to higher education. The institute is motivated by its culture of continuous quality improvement and therefore continuously seeks to align its education services with the demands of the industry market. This objective also plays a vital role in informing the curriculum development at Holmes institute which involves following a life-long commitment to learning, international views and the progression of knowledge and understanding among all of its learners (Holmes institute 2018).  As part of the institution's commitment to their continuous quality improvement objective, it benchmarks its internal systems, their structure, quality practices and processes against best performances in universities as well as colleges. It embraces new technologies in all of their institutions and this helps the institution in complementing the digital age.

    Overseas education is quite expensive and this discourages most learners from studying abroad. However, this is not the case in Australia. Studying in Australia is more affordable as compared to the rest of the states and it provides a high standard of quality education with an excellent living environment and a broadminded multicultural society. Therefore, it is quite important to note that Australia’s Higher education institutions such as the Holmes institute ranks among the world’s best and quality education providers as they offer quality education practices and processes which are correspondingly high (Idp 2017).

    Holmes Institute uses an international strategic management which involves the exploration of opportunities for gaining of competitive advantage in the international market in relation to the changing market and management trends. The institute offers MBA Australian programs that prepare the learners for work in the business industry thus enabling them to have a competitive advantage due to the provision of the quality education by the institute. The institute thus promotes innovation and critical thinking so as to allow students and graduates to be able to solve real-world issues and positively impact their communities and the society at large with the knowledge and skills acquired from the institute (VTAC   2015). This has thus helped the institute to gain a competitive advantage amongst all of its competitors and thus recording a high registering of students across the globe. 

Introduction

    The higher education system in Australia offers value for money through the provision of shorter and more rigorous courses which integrates most recent innovations both in science and in technology. These courses also integrate the most recent market trends in marketing and running of degree and diploma programs. It is for these reasons that the Australian education is regarded as more practical and responsive to the needs of different sectors such as trade and industry. Australia has a competitive cost in terms of tuition fee and living costs as compared to other states such as the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Education in Australia is globally recognized. It is for these reasons that potential consumers end up choosing Australia as the destination center as they are confident that a high standard education in international terms will be provided (Edwise n.p).

            Holmes Institute is among the best campuses across Australia. It has a range of facilities that are offered inside campus along with a state of art educational organization that is established by the institute. The key competitive edge that the institute has over another institute in Australia is that it has experienced staffs that are hired from across the globe based on their professionalism in the various subjects. Sufficient remunerations are offered while selecting these employees, therefore, allowing for the best-qualified employee to be employed so that they can work for longer durations and also add to the quality education provided by Holmes Institute.

    The method of making a choice on the educational institution to enroll in is not one of the easiest tasks. It involves a thorough research as much as more consideration from the consumer. This is because of the complexity of the needs of the consumer as well as the increasing number of institutions across the globe. For Holmes to adequately meet the needs of their consumers, it is important for them to understand the target market. In doing so, they will be able to identify with the various steps that the consumers go through in order to make their choice on the purchase. Different consumers have different needs and thus Holmes works hard in ensuring that they meet the needs of almost every consumer hence ensuring that they are able to choose Holmes as their institute of learning. This has yielded good results as most of the already enrolled students indicate that they chose Holmes due to the institution's ability to meet their demands such as having high quality professionally skilled personnel that deliver quality education practice and learning process.  Holmes reputable feature has resulted in agents recommending the school to most of the consumers and thus most people enroll in the institution following the agents’ recommendation (Edwise n.p).  The location of Holmes Institute in Australia is within a city and this has attracted most scholars thus choosing on this institution. Australia experiences sub-tropical climate which is favorable even for the international students. It is as a result of this friendly environment within Australia that most consumers choose on learning in Australia and in this case, Holmes Institute. This report will, therefore, seek to present the demographics, that is, the average characteristics of the potential consumers of Holmes Institute and the physiographic which will involve the analysis of consumers so as to understand why they choose on Holmes institutes in Australia. 

References

Education

Introduction

The quality of education is determined by different factors, which are the main drivers of the quality of services provided by teachers in different schools. Among these factors include economic status, culture, and ethnicity. Due to this factors, schools may therefore be able to either provide high quality education or low quality education, based on how they affect the provision of education in a specified region or locality. Similarly, these factors also define the way teachers’, students’, and the community in general relates to or even perceives education, hence affecting educational outcomes. Due to that reason, this paper will describe three examples of ways through which economic status, culture and/or ethnicity might influence educational outcomes for different groups of adolescents. In addition, the paper will also describe a strategy which would be used in a classroom to support for adolescents from such backgrounds, and finally explain how the given strategies will be effective and the expected outcomes.   

Economic Status

Economic status has both positive and negative impacts on the educational outcomes of adolescents. Whether the economic status and background in which an adolescent has been raised in. social economic status defines the psychological behavior of an adolescent based on his or her background (Miller, 2013). Adolescents may either be raised in a rich background, or a poor background, a factor which generally affects the way they relate with other people, the way they perceive education, and how they understand different aspects of life. This may consequently affect the privileges and opportunities tend to enjoy. In as much as adolescents may either be from a rich or a poor economic background, it may have either positive or negative impacts in their lives (Jensen, 2009).

There are two types of adolescent age groups, with one falling under the ages of 10-15 years, and the other one falling under the ages of 16-19 years (Zajda & Freeman, 2009). The two groups are different in the sense that they have different behaviors and reasoning capacities. Among the factors which adolescents from low socioeconomic status tend to behave differently, based on the things which they do not acquire in life. For instance, they may not have access to high quality education, healthcare and other social amenities. This makes them to have different beliefs when it comes to education.

Adolescents between the ages of 10-15 years from low socioeconomic status (SES), tend to perform poorly, basically because they do not have access to different social amenities, a factor which makes it hard for them to easily concentrated in their studies (Miller, 2013). The access of medical services is also poor, making them to experience poor health conditions, hence performing poorly in their studies. This is however not similar to those between the ages of 16-19 years, simply because they have adapted to the economic conditions which surround them, thus making them to easily concentrate in their studies hence performing better. In addition, they are not also at a high risk of dropping out of school, due to the adoption of this way of life. On the other hand, those between the ages of 10-19 years are at a very high risk of dropping out of school, and also getting unwanted pregnancies, due to poor understanding of how their bodies function, a factor which is majorly attributed to poor educational backgrounds (Zajda & Freeman, 2009).

When it comes to adolescents from high SES, they are privileged in the sense that they have access to social amenities, making them to perform better as compared to their counterparts from low SES. The access to high quality education, makes it easier for the adolescents between the ages of 10-15, and 16-19 years to perform equally better in their studies. Similarly, their health conditions are also good, making them to concentrate in their studies, without the risk of dropping out of schools or indulging in sexual behaviors, due to the quality of education which they receive thus making them to be abstain from such behaviors (Miller, 2013).

Culture

Culture influences the beliefs about education, the value of education, and the participation styles which cannot be overestimated by the students. There are two types of cultural styles which affect the way students perceive education. The two types of culture include individualist, and collectivist perspective on education (Zajda & Freeman, 2009). The two types of culture affect the way students understand and even tend to focus on their studies. Adolescents, between the ages of between the ages of 10-15 years tend to operate under collectivist cultural perspective. This means that they work in peers and offer assistance when needed. Their relationships are also based on groups which work together, and walk together, hence they are very likely to be affected by peer pressure, while undertaking different tasks while in school and also at home. They are also quiet and respectful in class, and in most cases they tend to listen to what they are being taught (Miller, 2013).

Adolescents between the ages of 16-19 years, tend to use individualist perspective, whereby they work independently. They consequently engage in discussions and in most cases their discussions are usually dependent on arguments, which makes them to think critically (Zajda & Freeman, 2009). Their behaviors are usually hyper, in such a way that they may not be telling the truth when it comes to group discussions. Similarly, they may not be attentive in class, thus they are likely to engage in sexual behaviors and also the abuse of drugs. They tend to adopt this behavior after joining the colleges, making them to be victims of peer pressure. This often makes most of them to perform poorly in their studies (Jensen, 2009).

Ethnicity

Ethnicity is also a major factor in the determination of the adolescents to the quality of studies which they tend to receive (Jensen, 2009). Adolescents from different ethnic groups have different beliefs when it comes to education, which may either affect their educational outcomes positively or negatively. Adolescents between the ages of 10-15 years usually follow the teachings and dictates of their ethnic societies, thus making them to be inclined on their ethnic beliefs (Zajda & Freeman, 2009). On the contrary, those between the ages of 16-19 years are usually self-dependent, hence making them to rely on what they no and believe in, hence they are likely to perform better, as compared to those between the ages of 10-15 years (Miller, 2013).

Conclusion

Economic status, culture and ethnicity are the main determiners of the outcomes of education among students, and as discussed, they may either positively or negatively affect the way adolescents perceive education. In the situation where students are self-dependent, in the sense that they do not rely on the dictates of their culture, ethnicity, and economic status, then they are likely to perform better in their studies. However, in situations whereby the economic status of a given region are poor, then students are likely to perform poorly.

Reference

Miller, D. F. (2013). Positive child guidance. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Zajda, J., & Freeman, K. (2009). Race, ethnicity and gender in education: Cross-cultural understandings. Dordrecht: Springer.

Jensen, E. (2009). Teaching with poverty in mind: What being poor does to kids' brains and what schools can do about it. Alexandria, Va: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The Hawthorne effect

The Hawthorne effect is not a surname of a scientist but the location where the experiment took place. A researcher by the name Henry A Landberger carried out a study and evaluation of information from previous experiments by Elton Mayo at Hawthorne works in Chicago in the late 1920 and 1930.The aim of the experiment was to determine if the amount of light in a building can affect the productivity of the laborers (MKA, 2012).

The initial reason for the experiment was to evaluate the effects of   physical conditions on productivity. Two sets of laborers in the Hawthorne factory were used as test subjects. On one particular day, brightness in the work environment of one group was enhanced while that of the other group remain the same. It was noted that the productivity of the group whose lighting was increased was way better than that of the other group (control group).The workers’ environment was also altered i.e. their working periods, breaks etc. Still, their productivity increased every time a certain factor was changed within their working environment. By the time working conditions were returned to normal, productivity was at an all-time high. Absenteeism had also decreased (Institute of Management Foundation, 1998).

The researchers came to a conclusion that altering the physical working environment was not the reason for the increase in productivity but the simple fact that their employers were concerned about their working environment. Initially, the outcome of the research seemed to be tied to the research’s frame work settings. Workers who are under surveillance are more likely to affect the outcome of the study. Management practices also seemed to contribute to the results. Employees who are under observation, carry out their duties differently from others who are not under observation.

So, individuals’ productivity increases when their environment at work is changed, not as a result of the change itself. In Hawthorne research, employees’ productivity grew due to the presence of the researchers. It is not the presence of the researchers alone that influenced the experiment but also the attention they gave to the workers. Elton mayo, the leading scientist of the experiment explained that the increase in productivity was due to the concern showed by the observers which caused an emotional effect that in turn affected the productivity.

Hawthorne effect information is vital to team leaders. If a team is not productive enough, the components of the research can be used to come up with solutions. In terms of the physical environment, any change of the surroundings will have a positive effect on the workers. Be it bringing in a new flower or altering the sitting arrangement. In terms of surveillance, take time to analyze how the team operates and run its activities. Of course, don’t give any hints by peeking through their work, instead inform them that you may like to cooperate with them to improve on their work. The fact that you are willing to help them boosts their morale (Khan, 2008).

Elton mayo was more concerned about the effectiveness of working within a group than individually. He concluded that social factors influence productivity more than the attitudes of individual together with their emotional and physical characters (Khan, 2008).

Hawthorne researchers looked further into informal groups that employees created. They realized that group members bonded in a special way, independent of their familiarity. They also noted that the relations team leaders developed with employees have an impact on the productivity of the workers. Company culture can influence greatly the productivity of a company. In today’s world Hawthorne effect is known as observer effect. Therefore, it is safe to say Hawthorne effect applied psychological incentives by isolation of workers and making them feel vital.

References

MKA, (2012). S.H.E: Speaking Hawthorne Effect. Alibris.

Institute of Management Foundation. (1998). Elton Mayo: The Hawthorne experiments. Corby: Institute of Management Foundation.

Khan, H. A. (2008). An introduction to public administration. Lanham, Md: University Press of America.

When Knowledge Knows No Bounds

Introduction

People in most cases over-predict their knowledge, in most cases affirming knowledge of events concepts and even people not even present in the universe and can never be known which is referred to as over-claiming (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). The authors were seeking to establish the primary causes of such proclamations of an impossible knowledge. The study established that individuals are used to over-claiming to a degree that their view their personal proficiency positively. In addition, self-perceived proficiency in regard to certain areas is connected directly with the over-claiming in regard to those aspects. The research was driven by the need to establish whether individuals can fully differentiate amid what they know and what is not known. This was grounded on a thesis that proposed, individuals are not always accurate in knowledge judgment as in most cases they over project their knowledge (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). The research was centered on an individual’s self-perceived role in certain areas such as finance. It is suggested by different studies that performance impressions in regard to proficiency which creates a sensation of knowledge that triggers over-claiming (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015).

Design

The study utilized a qualitative method following descriptive design. The research was accomplished by conducting two studies where the first one only had 100 participants (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). This included 33 females and 66 men with the average age of 31 years and standard deviation of 9.7 (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). Three participants did not take part in the study as one withdrew and two failed to complete the process (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). The second study had 201 participants with 85 females and 115 men with two of them having not accounted their gender leading to an average age of 33 and 10.1 standard deviations. 12 participants were excluded for failure to complete the processes in the research (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). Data was collected by the use of questionnaires filling where informed consent forms were filled prior to the participation to affirm that the study was deliberate and confidential. The study involved filling knowledge in regard to financial related concepts. Six knowledge cut of was utilized as the measures of control (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015).

Results

The study involved measuring over-claiming by totaling the false alarm level which is the sign of the non-existence of the knowledge that the participants had claimed to be having (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). Based on the high claim of familiarity with financial related knowledge the results demonstrated a rather positive association amid self-professed knowledge and over-claiming. It was established that the primary force that leads to over-claiming is based on self-professed knowledge in regard to a certain field such as finance. There is thus, a positive association amid, self-proclaimed knowledge in a given field and the potential of over-claiming (Atir, Rosenzweig & Dunning, 2015). The results, therefore, asserts that familiarity is a causative of overclaiming.

Application

The hypothesis of the study is that familiarity of a certain expertise leads to over-claiming based on the assumption of proficiency. It is obvious that most of the knowledge proclaimed by individuals is not in existence. The results support the study’s hypothesis. This results can be utilized in actual life in determining an individual’s proficiency in certain domains. In that claiming is obvious but knowledge is something that can be assessed. In psychology, this can be utilized to gauge the knowledge that one possesses and whether their claims are real or based on assumptions. Increased knowledge can in general affects the results.

Conclusion

In most cases, individuals both females and males over-estimate their knowledge in regard to certain given fields. In that, this knowledge might not be known or in existence. The study’s results demonstrate a clear and positive association amid familiarity and the likelihood of overestimation. Individuals tend to overestimate their knowledge on the basis of proficiency thus claiming knowledge that not exist.

Reference

Atir S., Rosenzweig E., and Dunning, D. (2015). When Knowledge Knows No Bounds: Self-Perceived Expertise Predicts Claims of Impossible Knowledge. Psychological Science Vol. 26(8) 1295 –1303. DOI: 10.1177/0956797615588195. SAGE.

Working Memory Underpins Cognitive Development, Learning, and Education

 The subject of the article is mechanisms of working memory concept and basically assesses its conceptual development and historical roots.  The article then dives into exploration of working memory improvement in regard to the cognitive development, the role played by memory in learning process and possible effects of working memory. It also partly examines the effects of working memory development for adults and children’s education.  The articles also uses the work by various researchers on working memory training for improving education and  learning and the need  to adjust learning materials for  enhancing learning and education using the abilities of learner’s working memory.  Specifically the article reviews the early research on working memory in order to explain this concept, and how different researchers held different definition of working memory. The author explores the roles and limits of working memory as described by various researchers in early history and compares with the description of recent researchers.  The working memory is presented as a common concept, and which has attracted many investigators who try to explain the role of working memory in the learning process.  Their contributions to understanding working memory and learning is discussed: George Miller explored limitations on number of times a person can hold items in immediate memory; Donald Broadbent brought the discussion from behavioral error into cognitive psychology; Hitch and Baddeley discussed short-terms memory and phonological processing; crown concentrated on how a person represents what he knows and what he does not know regarding information processing (Cowan, 2014). Recent researchers emphasize refreshing of stored items using attentions, which takes time regardless of whether they are verbal or nonverbal. The article concludes that working memory consists of memory itself, control skills for information management and cognitive information processing. Working memory limitations knowledge has been theoretically discussed but uncertainty on the same continues.

 The author of this article discussed the concept of working memory using various articles on historical understanding of this idea. The research articles are used for reviewing and analyzing the role of working memory in learning and education and its limitations. The methods were used thoroughly to explore the historical and recent research works that has informed the understanding of this concept especially in relation to the learning process and education in children and adults. The aim of the author was to marry the findings of the articles and come up with one article discussing the concept, its development and application in the learning process.  The findings of the article explains that working memory consist of the memory itself, control skills for managing information and the cognitive information processing. In addition, the uncertainty still exists about the working memory limitations in terms of information processing speed, holding capacity, information retention duration before it expires and various kinds of interference components that relate to long-term memory (Cowan, 2014).  These issues should be considered for learning process and education as important in cognitive psychology and development.  Considering the working memory limitations for readers and listeners can help in enhancing the writing and lecturing styles of a person.

The study assists in understanding working memory as a cognitive system with limitations on capacity for holding information, processing the information and retrieving of such information. It offers further lessons on reasoning capacity of a person based on their memory, both short-term and long-term.  In terms of a person’s behavior especially in the learning setting, the information discussed enhances the understanding of a memory capacity and how training can be done to achieve better education outcomes. The information is important in helping one to understand how controlling skills can be used manage information and how memory limitations restricts our understanding capability. In addition, the study discusses the effects of improving working memory through training which is important in making executive decisions. A person’s cognitive ability can be related to the capacity and limitation of his or her working memory, while training may improve the performance of an individual in terms of remembrance and in performance of various tasks. 

The study also relates to the field of education given that it discusses the role of working memory in the learning process, the cognitive psychology and development especially for children. By discussing the development of working memory concept, the article highlights how various researchers have defined it and how it has been improved with time. More crucial is the understanding of the impact of memory capacity of learners and how it affects their learning ability. There is need to adjust learning materials so that they fit the learner’s working capabilities and hence, improve their education and learning outcomes. Understanding the limitations of a learners working memory is important especially when monitoring their performance, hence, the learner’s failure can be attributed to such limitations. In the education field, understanding the reasons for the learners’ performance and such relate to working memory can be a basis of improving their performance. Through this, one can help readers or listeners.

Reference

Cowan, N. (2014). Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning, and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 197-223.

Sexist language in classrooms

Introduction

Sexist type of language is often used in many cases in reference to one gender thereby excluding the opposite gender from the talk but having both genders in the same setting. This can include using the word man in reference to humanity such as using the word chairman instead of using chairperson. Gender bias is very inappropriate especially in the classroom since it shows some level of discrimination on the basis of gender. For example statements such as each individual student should use his own ideas while formulating a hypothesis makes a reader or the involved party to think of it as a single based gender whereas more than half of the classroom is occupied by females (Formanowicz & Sczesny, 2016). In most cases, while in the same classroom setting, a presenter might be used to having the sexist language until no further corrections can be made to the damage already caused making the make gender the dominant or the norm while making the female gender a new word thereby referring to it as the other.

Sexist language is one of the most common languages that have affected many people in the society today. In the classrooms and educational institutions, the female gender is the most affected since most people are used to referring to them as the other while recognizing the presence of the male gender in the same setting (Vervecken et al., 2015). In the classrooms, the language encourages the use of dirty languages to the minority gender which usually offends them while still nothing is done to improve the situation. The minority gender is affected to the level that one feels the void since no recognition is done to them. In such a case, the minority gender or the victim will have a hard time recognizing the existence of the same group. This creates the fear and the lack of confidence making it hard for the victim making it very hard and challenging to pursue their dreams in such an environment. Such influences can haunt the life of the victim even in the society where no recognition is awarded to the gender.

When it comes to career choices, most of these people are left to choose some of the worst and ever low types of careers which only could be performed by those who did not attend school (Vervecken et al., 2015). This is evident today in a case where a career is the only male-dominated while others are female dominated while either gender can do a better work on the same. For instance, the engineering and handy jobs are recognized as male-dominated and in such a case, no female would dare engage or even have interest in it and yet some females have taken up the challenge but no recognition is done on their part. Sexist language affects people but others just feel the need to continue in such an environment since there is no other option but in the professional world, the language will create an impact that will affect the speaker in a huge way. If one feels the need to use the language in the classes while addressing the students, then there will be consequences if the person does not change the behavior (Formanowicz & Sczesny, 2016). In the professional world, when one uses the sexist language, there are chances that the person will be implicated to stop or otherwise lose the audience which was ready to listen but due to the fact of referring the audience as a masculine related talk, none will be willing to listen.

Neanderthal type of behavior where a woman in most cases is not respected by the society especially by the men was a norm in the past few years but things have changed in the current generation. Women were taken advantage of in the past by men referring to them as just a figure meant to make a client happy but not the seriousness they deserved. In the current times, females have been dominating the professional industry making it very inappropriate to use the sexist language in such a setting. This is however not the case in most employment places where the females have been tasked with defending their part (Kramarae & Zhang, 2015). Females have been left to do the basic and undeserving types of works such as cleaning and dusting whereas many can do better than a man in what men are perceived to be doing. In cases where men and women are tasked with working on a project, the males will have the day while the female will just be there as a show of support but none of their ideas will be incorporated in the report. When it comes to recognition, the females will just be given a vague comment while males will be given a great review and in most cases, the females are the engine behind such an idea.

In schools and classes, the theme of prejudice and stereotypes is very necessary for the society. The stereotype is considered to be the reason most of the people live in the reality in the society today. This kind of stereotype is very positive but in many occasions, it stops people from thinking of the real thing which can have an impact in the life of a person (Weatherall, 2015). The negative parts of the stereotype are more than the positive part making it very challenging even in the schools. The sexist language is one of the stereotypes that are affecting the education sector is very evident in most parts of the world today. Students who have lived with sexist language from the elementary schools up until the university level have more to learn than just been discriminated in the education society. For example, children in schools are given tasks according to their genders and this stick into their minds even after school. They have no choice but obey and grow with the perception even after their school. While still in schools and colleges and especially in the classes, teachers and lecturers also contribute to the discrimination against the females in the class.

In many cases, teachers will always expect the best from the male genders while the females are just participants who make up the number in a class. In terms of performance, a teacher will be very strict while dealing with a boy than when dealing with a girl. The potentiality of the boys is considered to be very great whereas that of the girls it is always termed as average. When it comes to performing, girls are expected to do well in languages which do not require a lot of effort mastering whereas the boys are expected to star in subjects such as math and the sciences (Kramarae & Zhang, 2015). This translates into lack of being recognized where teachers will in many cases and in some schools, sexist language is the order of the day. In such a case, the abilities and the potentiality of the students are ruined and recovering from such a horrific part of life is very difficult. This is the reason the society today will not recognize that females can be of great value and males are expected to be the minds behind every project. In cases where a female student has performed best more than the boys, there is no recognition and the school is turned into a battlefield where it is felt like there is no performance at all.

The schools are not the only places where sexist language is used; churches have also embraced the language thereby causing this socio-culture of discriminating one gender a reality to many people. Acquisition of skills and abilities in the society has been brought down by the issue of sexist language in our schools (Weatherall, 2015). There is no freedom of speech in the schools and classes since recognition is done to only one single gender. From such an experience, we can role in the idea that one thing is very wrong with the current educational systems we have in place. Children are raised in a society where such kind of stereotypes is very rampant making it very difficult to have the children being independent in life. Students learn the idea of having one gender recognized as the dominant gender from the families and the society they grow up. While in the elementary schools, boys and girls are taught different ideas which they will use for the rest of their lives which include girls can never be better than boys. These ideas translate to their minds and during addressing each other, what transpires is a case where the male gender is left to be the ruling party (Msuya, 2016).

 Girls in most cases do better than the boys and the idea behind it cannot allow the presenter to recognize the ladies. In the society today, girls who start showing interest in the male-dominated industry are not respected and in many cases are mistaken for being transgender or having some genes which are male related. In the military world, many addresses are still done referring to the leader as a male even if it is a female. This is a factor that has attracted national interest in some parts of the world, especially the human rights groups. Many are advocating for a situation where females in leadership are addressed as females and not as males. In schools, the males are very rude and most resistance but no one will object that since this is not something new to them. However, when a girl makes a mistake it is expected that she is given the toughest kind of treatment to make sure that that does not happen again (Nair, 2017). This is a problem in the society that needs a lot of consideration and correction. It is not appropriate for a student to be discriminated on the basis of gender and neither is it in order to address a female like a male.

Researchers done to many schools indicate that there is a substantial difference in both males and females where males are given the first priority more than the ladies. According to the research many advocates for an opportunity where both males and females are educated in a different school setting for example males in a male-only school and females in a female school only. This can in return cause the balancing of the institutions creating a substantial level of recognition for both genders. Separating males from females can make up for the lost part of the society where the management and even the teachers and lecturers will be in a position to respect and address each according to the gender. In such a case, one does not expect to hear a teacher addressing the students who are females as males. This will be regarded as being unfit and rude to the students by showing a bad example of how to treat a lady (Drury & Kaiser, 2014). Every person today has parts of the brain developing in a different level where the males are given the priority to have the development encouraged more than the females. This has translated into showing some dependency levels on the males more than the females. Considering this part, it is very important to recognize the fact that the brain development is not equal to both genders but efforts should be made to make up the void. Just like it is in the classrooms where males are given their time to generate and bring up ideas meaning more attention to the males than the females, this also happens in the workplaces where males are allowed to make presentations uninterrupted but females are tasked with defining each term they use in the presentations. This in return indicates that the females are not trusted to develop something on their own making it very discouraging on their part.

Implications of sexist language

There are a number of reasons as to why sexist language is very inappropriate in our schools and which translates into our workplaces. It is an obvious thing that the females feel very insecure and so hurt in cases where only masculinity is recognized and the females are generalized as others. The status in the society is destroyed by the sexist language and it hurts both psychologically and physically. Thinking about it, females are deprecated and ignored every single day in the general conversations and in the professional industry. In many cases, the effects are experienced even in the mental state of a person where they start questioning their integrity and capability developing into stress and eventually rendering the person mentally ill (Nair, 2017). Use of the language reinforces the sexist attitudes and also the behaviors. The languages used to shape the human thinking and how a person thinks basically implicates the actions of the person. If a country takes the females as the inferior gender to men just because men are referred to with respect, then it will definitely cause disrespect for the women. Items that are neither respected nor shown humility are always kept on the sidelines and anything can happen to them if they cannot protect themselves. This is the same case with women who are most neglected and not respected making it hard for them to survive amongst the males in the society.

Considering some of the states where violence is the order of the day, it is very evident that women are the most affected and they are never shown any kind of mercy by their oppressors. One of the major reasons as to why this is happening is the issue of sexist language from a low level in life (Chan & Ismail, 2016). Leaders who grew up in an environment where women are not recognized translate the same to the people they lead. It is not an amazing thing as such in a country like that to find females being raped and nothing is done to the perpetrators. Justice in such a case is a new word and there is no reason to cause harm to the females. For a fact, different circumstances and elements have created this level of injustice but the main contributor is the language. The continued reference to females in secondary positions creates a scar in the minds of the females. A research done on women indicated significant differences. In this case, the women were tasked with generating a generic pronoun and most of them never had an image of a person while the others had an image of a man (Msuya, 2016). This study shows that females can imagine themselves as general humans making it hard to identify a position where a woman can succeed in life.

Generalizing the fact that women are subjected to low esteem is the only possible outcome and this has been affected by the language used while addressing an audience. A person who has no self-esteem and no positive image in a capitalist society has zero chances of making it out successful. Lack of making it in the society can lead to some psychological disorders such as depression (Drury & Kaiser, 2014). In a country like the United States, the rate of women who suffer from depression is at almost 10 percent compared to the man which is at least below 4 percent. Depression in females comes from the act of gender inequality, stress response, body image, dietary, role strain and poverty. Not all types of depressions are caused by the issue of language but many and quite a number of them stem from sexist language from a low level in education.

Conclusion

Educators are very influential when it comes to the lives and behaviors of students through making them very aware of the disadvantages of using the sexist language. Students need to be taught on how to eliminate this menace that is affecting the society today. The kind of society we live in today is affected by sexist language which has lowered the level of economic growth and diversification. Potential females are being subjected to inferior positions in the workplaces and slowing down the level of success (Chan & Ismail, 2016). If companies and the general world would embrace the fact that women in the society should be recognized, then there would be a difference in the state of the world today. Potential minds are being wasted since the victims lack self-esteem and the drive to bigger heights. Educators should embrace recognizing and addressing both genders with respect to change their thinking. Attention should be awarded to both genders to create competition which in turn creates opportunities for growth and development. There is no country or society which can succeed with only a single gender. Every gender needs the assistance of the opposite gender. A society where there are only males is doomed for failure and extinction making it requires the help of the females. With this ideology, it is evident that recognition should be done with respect to the involved gender.

References

Chan, K. W., & Ismail, N. (2016). Gender representation in the Malaysian Year Six (UPSR) English Language examination papers for Chinese national-type primary schools. International Journal of Gender Studies in Developing Societies, 1(3), 219-235.

Drury, B. J., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Allies against sexism: The role of men in confronting sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 637-652.                                              

Formanowicz, M., & Sczesny, S. (2016). Gender-Fair language and professional self-reference: the case of female psychologists in Polish. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 10(1), 64-81.

Kramarae, C., & Zhang, W. (2015). Sexist language and sexuality. The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality.

McMahon, S., Allen, C. T., Postmus, J. L., McMahon, S. M., Peterson, N. A., & Lowe Hoffman, M. (2014). Measuring bystander attitudes and behavior to prevent sexual violence. Journal of American college health, 62(1), 58-66.

McPhillips, R., & Speer, S. A. (2015). Sexist discourse. The International Encyclopedia of Language and Social Interaction.

Msuya, E. A. (2016). Magnitude and Forms of Linguistic Violence against Teachers in Dar Es Salaam Schools: A Gender Comparison. International Journal of Social Science Research, 4(1), 195-213.

Nair, R. (2017). RECOGNISING SEXIST LANGUAGE THROUGH CHILDREN’S LITERATURE. The English Teacher, 9.

        Vervecken, D., Gygax, P. M., Gabriel, U., Guillod, M., & Hannover, B. (2015). Warm-hearted businessmen, competitive housewives? Effects of gender-fair language on adolescents’ perceptions of occupations. Frontiers in psychology, 6.

Weatherall, A. (2015). Sexism in language and talk-in-interaction. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 34(4), 410-426.

Weber, D. M., & Dickter, C. L. (2015). Confronting the “F” Word: The Effects of Gender, Ambiguity, and Individual Difference Variables on Non-Targets’ Confrontation of Heterosexist Comments. Journal of homosexuality, 62(10), 1289-1312.

DIY U: Edupunks, Edupreneurs and the Coming Transformation of Higher Education

 Introduction

DIY U (Do-It-Yourself University) means that students and education institutions should use technology, self-determination and critical thinking to implement a non-formal education and career opportunities, create a learner-centered education and bring transformation. In addition, Kamenetz talks about the future of education and the need to implement change through addressing education challenges such as cost and quality. It is the high time to utilize the available resources such technologies in order to improve higher learning. Everyone is accountable and responsible to improve the education.  The purpose of this book is to urge each and everyone to contribute toward education transformation and use technology and practices to build an education system which provides quality and access.

Main argument

             Today, the institutions of high education are facing challenges which hinder effective education. Some of the challenges include massive tuition hikes, higher education demand, and lack of education resources to meet the demand, education gaps, low access and higher debts (Kamenetz, 2011). Kamenetz uses an informative language to argue that education is lagging behind and it is high time to use technology and innovation in order to bring reformation.  The main argument in this writing is that higher education in American need a student-centered approach which will offer education programs and academic support to meet the students’ needs and help them achieve their goals (Kamenetz, 2011). In other words, reformation is needed for establishing a learner-centered education which will promote a life-long learning. The author argues that to address the challenges associated with rising costs, lack of employment opportunities,  lack of access and quality,  it is  the role and responsibility of  higher education institutions and society in general  to join hands and bring reforms. Kamenetz goes on to argue that in order to transform the education system and ensure access and quality, people should focus on ‘do-it-yourself education’. In other words, the students and education institutions should be self-motivated and foresee the multiple paths for success. The author argues that in bringing reformation, addressing problems and achieving goals self-reliance and collaboration should be key elements (Kamenetz, 2011).  

 Education and sociology, social class and social mobility

 The author states that despite the fact that America and world in general are trying to reform education system in the Digital Age, there are challenges which are hindering development. The mainly challenge is class and race- a situation where people of color face unequal opportunities in higher education (Kamenetz, 2011).  In addition, minorities face discrimination and unfair advantages which creates education gap. The author states that the institution of higher education need to take affirmative actions to promote quality and bridge the education gap. In addition, it is the higher time to take affirmative action to meet the need of minority students who come from low-income background and ensure they have access and quality education. In American today, education system has created a completive meritocracy and ignored equal opportunities. Education gap  is explained further by  author Gary Becker who argues that  human capital creates  income inequality in that  knowledge, creativity and ability  is the measured by  economic values. This means that the education gap denies the minority human capital and they are unable to participate in labor market.  This creates a salary gap where people with PhDs earn $1,555 on weekly basis and BA earns $978 (Bureau of Labor Statistics). This also means that income inequality promotes a culture of inequality and lack of social mobility. In other words, the education gap is rooted from lack of opportunity in labor markets, unemployment, and poor consumption. Minority students are unable to access quality education since their parents face financial challenges rooted from salary gap, education gap and lack of social mobility (Kamenetz, 2011).  Other point to note is that public resources are not well distributed because you find that colleges of wealthier students’ access public resources and colleges of students from poor background do not access the public resources. The author calls for reform and urges the education institution to distribute federal and State aid equally.

Technology and education institutions

 Technology has changed education in a remarkable way in that students can access education easily through the internet. There are various education opportunities where students can achieve ‘do-it-yourself education’ in YOUTUBEEDU, open journal, podcasts among many sources (Kamenetz, 2011). Technology has provided easy method for communication and collaboration in that students and teachers can use videoconferencing, blog positing and e-mails to collaborate with other students and share information. However, despite the technological innovation, there is a big challenge since not all individuals are able to access the technology. For example, the author states that students from low-income background and students of color are denied the opportunity (Kamenetz, 2011). This affects their academic success due to lack technological aptitude. Technology has offered lifelong learning and has reinforced teachers-students interaction. In supporting the technology in education, the author supports the hybrid education model which encompasses both online learning and classroom instruction. This model is best for students-centered learning where students-faculty relationship is reinforced. Students will also find satisfactory in their courses through computer-mediated communication. Thus, it is important to bring education reformation by utilizing the technology. The latter will provide opportunity for learning to everyone in all places (Kamenetz, 2011).

The future of education

Kamenetz states that the future of education will be characterized by digital approaches   where students will be using personal learning networks. In other words, technology is developing a personalized learning where students will rely on individual learning (Kamenetz, 2011). Students will gain a positive learning experience and students-teacher interaction will be reinforced.  In foreseeing the future, the author urges students and higher education institutions to join hands and create a self-directed learning where students will have accountability and responsibility in their own learning. In other words, self-direction will promote critical thinking, effective communication and collaboration (Kamenetz, 2011). Generally, the future of education is supported by Do-It-Yourself. This means that in future, students are expected to   embrace the self-directed learning and use the technology in order to meet theory goals.  Students should utilize the many self-education resources such as online courses, video learning, digital skills platforms, liberal arts and others to create a lifelong learning and useful self-education (Kamenetz, 2011).

 Conclusion

 Kamenetz is a great author who solves the education problems facing higher education institutions. The important point which she offers is that in order to address the challenges of rising costs and access of education, education institutions should focus on innovation. The latter means that it is the role of students and education institutions to bring education reform through the use technology. In other words, education reform and the future of education should be characterized by ‘Do-It-Yourself’. This means that students should use the ‘personal learning networks’ supported by technological placations. Technology will provide a wide information, sharing and interaction. Education will only be transformed by DIY approach.

Reference

Kamenetz, A. (2011). DIY U: Edupunks, edupreneurs, and the coming transformation of higher education.

Chelsea Green Publishing

Identifying myself

Introduction

In my life, education is important as it gave me an opportunity to move to a foreign nation to further my studies. This was a life changing moment since I developed a self-identity in terms of my personality, skills and abilities. I had prepared myself well, I had applied for a passport and I had also bought a plane ticket. I had unusual experience and also developed a travel anxiety when I imagined that I am about to leave my parents and siblings. My family was a source of comfort where I could interact with my parents and get parental love. My parents escorted me to the airport and reluctantly my mother said ‘go explore the world’. We all felt the pain of separation but I knew that I will meet beneficial experiences, explore the world, learn new culture, meet career opportunities and create lifelong friends.

I had a wonderful and a valuable experience in the new country and I really felt at home.  As I was preparing to further my education aboard, I was so much stressed about financial matters since I was dependant for many years. However, I found an endless support since I had educational opportunities and was able to gains new skills and knowledge. The supportive community which was made of teachers, students and friends inspired and enlightened me, and more importantly helped me create self-esteem and confidence.  By interacting with new people and respecting their culture, I adapted to social codes and other unfamiliar and unusual things.

 I met all sorts of aspects which I could not meet in my home country. This was an enriching experience   since the opportunity to interact with people helped my identity in terms of my passions and character. The life in the country changed my life completely. I was authentic since I could adhere to the code of morals and integrity through interacting with others.  Kindness and respect was not only for my own benefit but for the benefit of others. I derived satisfaction from people who were around me and satisfaction was influenced by supportive social relationships.

 Life  in abroad  is full of challenges but I  had an enriching experience since I  realized that  in order to life happily with new people I had to  accept change. By accepting change, people could see love and happiness in me and this fostered a positive influence. Even though teachers and students influenced me, initially I created my own happiness and positive people in life inspired me. One thing which helped my successes in life is staying positive. After creating as long-life relationship with positive people, I was attentive and aware of the things happening in my life.

I identified myself as a high-spirited person as I always lived a happy life and showed interest in exciting people and ensuring that they live an enjoyable life.  I liked to encourage people through words and support in making life-giving changes. In difficult times, I could always put myself into their shoes and I could share ideas with them in helping them live a joyful life. Teachers, students and friends from external environment helped me explore the world and cope the challenges which I met.  Indeed, the helped me achieve my goals.

After realizing my passions, I became a proactive passion- I could make wise, careful and thoughtful decisions which could direct me toward achieving my goals.  The opportunity to further my education helped me understand myself as a proactive person who is determined with the future. I am interested in engaging in various social clubs such as community services, theatre club more where I create social change in my life, in others and in the community.  In order to achieve my goals and stay a happy life, I learned that I have to appreciate challenges and take risk. These enrich my life and help me move on.

Learning and Memory

Kalm, K., & Norris, D. (2016). Recall is not necessary for verbal sequence learning. Memory & Cognition, 44(1), 104-113. doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0544-0

 The query of whether obvious recall or remembering information fast-tracks learning is significant in a broad range of real and actual world learning settings. Previous researches conducted have proposed that verbal sequence learning should be recalled or it subsidises a lot to it. Due to that reason, this paper consequently shows that recalls by previous researchers does not in any way predict learning and there is not a reason as to why it should be recalled. We therefore submit that previous research may have underrated the learning of the participants’, through the use of inferior performance measures, or through the use of manual or otherwise written memory. Nonetheless, we demonstrate that the quantity of spoken remembrance predicted how much intrusion from other types of to be remembered sequences would otherwise be perceived. As a matter of fact spoken recall arbitrated a lot of the error which was observed in the task (Kalm & Norris, 2016). Our information therefore supports the perception that learning through the overlapping of auditory-verbal is majorly propelled through learning linguistic representation but not on the enunciation motor responses. On the other hand, spoken recall appears to support already erudite representations, either if they are wrong or right, hence contributing to a participant recognising certain incentive as either learned or new, during the phase of presentation.

In a bid to provide the reasons as to why spoken recall may be necessary for concurrent learning of overlying auditory verbal sequence, and if the amount of spoken work predicts the amount of learning and the errors of a specific sequence, the author used qualitative analysis. The author sampled participants, where 22 right handed both male and female between the ages of 20-33 years volunteered. The participants were required to remember an order of eight acoustically presented monosyllabic letters in right order (Kalm & Norris, 2016).  The syllabic sequence differed from the actual syllabic representation of the letters of the alphabet. All the participants were required to remember all the letters in the form which they were earlier on presented. The letters were read over and over again for twelve times. After the experiment, it was discovered that spoken recall affects the memory, and this was attributed to the repetition of the letters, which significantly showed that after the 9th repetition, the memory of the participants increased, and their levels of accuracy also improved, thus they were able to easily remember the letters in their correct form. The article has therefore not only proved that spoken recall improves the rate of remembering, part it also increases the accuracy, thus making it easier for people to be capable of clearly remembering. However, it was observed that about 10% of the memory was affected when the reading was interfered. Interference of the reading made it slightly hard for the participants to clearly remember the letters in the correct form, however they remembered what they had previous heard. Other than that, the method was accurate, as it proved how easily the memory changed when the reading was interfered with. In addition, it also made it clear how the memory improves with the accuracy of the reading.

According to my point of view, I strongly believe the study was very effective, due to the results that it has provided. The research looked deeper into the aspect of memory and learning, where it was evident that spoken recall indeed affects the memory, since repeated verbal information increases the ability to understand and to internalize the information, hence being able to remember. The information gathered from the research is very significant, as it will help in future developments of psychology. In addition, it will people to change their behaviour, thus easily understanding how to easily remember. Moreover, the study will also influence future research on psychology, hence understanding how the brain works, and how easily the memory can store information. Behaviour affects the memory, thus behaviours are deemed to change, since most people will change their own behaviour as a means of improving their memory. Finally, the research consequently explains how we can be able to improve our memory, and the factors which can hinder us from having a good memory. Due to that reason. We can be able to use different listening and learning techniques, thus easily understanding whatever we are being taught.      

iv

The research has allowed me to gain an inner understanding into psychology, a factor which positively impacts my career. As a psychologist, one is required to understand how the human mind functions, how one understands and memorizes information, hence being able to clearly conduct psychological analysis at ease. This research has therefore seen me understanding how the human mind operates, and the factors which may hinder understanding, which in turn leads to poor memory. Similarly, I have also learnt that some factors which we consider as the factors which affect our memory, are indeed not the actual factors.

Reference

Kalm, K., & Norris, D. (2016). Recall is not necessary for verbal sequence learning. Memory & Cognition, 44(1), 104-113. doi:10.3758/s13421-015-0544-0

Education

Part 1

Annotated bibliography

Mbiti, I. M. (2016). The Need for Accountability in Education in Developing Countries. Journal Of

Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 109-132. doi:10.1257/jep.30.3.109

 The developing countries like African countries, South Asia and Caribbean regions have increased education spending and gross domestic product. The high spending has been connected with improving schooling access and increasing inputs such as teachers and classrooms. Even though there is a remarkable increase in education spending on profitable areas, there is a low level of learning especially in rural areas. Various research and datasets have also found that the education system is ragging behind due to high level of absenteeism, poor monitoring and poor management. The root cause of these challenges is lack of accountability which has affected the resource investment on education.  This article states that the developing countries have a centralized system of education which hinders teachers’ accountability. In addition, there is lack of documented measures in teaching and the major challenge in developing countries is absenteeism and wastage of time on irrelevant things. Despite these unethical behaviors, there is no dismissal, and monitoring toward compliance to regulation and standards is poor. In the education system, there is need for improved accountability and in this case principles have a big impact on accountability. Training and investment on programs among principles is needed for them to have an effective management on education. Effective school management and high level of accountability should be promoted through empowerment and funding.  These decentralized initiatives such as training and funding will improve performance, reduce absence and ensure an effective local management. This article has strength in that it has provided possible interventions which could address the underlying challenges and improve accountability. However, there is a weakness in that the article does not touch on issues affecting early childhood education. In future research, it is important to include technology as a tool for monitoring, improving productivity and accountability.

Erdağ, C. (2017). Accountability Policies at Schools: A Study of Path Analysis. Educational Sciences:

Theory & Practice, 17(4), 1405-1432. doi:10.12738/estp.2017.4.0362

 Erdag (2017) states that education Institutions serve an important purpose of providing students with academic skills and high academic performance. These are achieved through funding and adequate human resources. The article provides a case from Turkish where education system is associated with various challenges. The education system in this country is associated with poor academic performance where students produce low results in national and international exams.  Students lack adequate skills on subjects such as math, science and problem-solving skills. The country has tried to address these challenges by developing various development projects   designed for education effectiveness and efficiency. The article states that challenges with education system are rooted from politics and bureaucracy which lacks accountability. The article presents   a research which examines the causal relationship between school and policies accountabilities (dependent variables) on academic performance (independent variables).The purpose of the research is to examine what improves the school accountability. A path analysis was used to test the theoretical model   between variables such as shareholders’ pressure, bureaucratic pressure, professional competency, academic standards, social environment and more. Findings from the path analysis showed that the stakeholder’s pressure and teachers’ accountability had a positive impact on academic performance. In addition, parents’ pressure toward higher performance and teachers’ peer reviews increased academic performance. Social environments also give teachers the pressure to provide high academic performance. Bureaucratic pressures improve performance by showing accountability on exams evaluation. The article contains some strength in that   the research has developed a theory of school accountability in education system. The theory allows the reader understand that accountability policies do not have a big impact on school performance but rather higher performance is rooted from teachers, social environment, administrators and bureaucracy. However, there is a weakness in that the article emplpoys an external control mechanism which affects higher performance. In future research, the theoretical models should be combined   with more variables in order to produce qualitative evidence.

Argon, T. (2015). Teacher and Administrator Views on School Principals' Accountability. Educational

Sciences: Theory & Practice, 15(4), 925-944. doi:10.12738/estp.2015.4.2467

According to Argon (2015), in modern world, organizations or education institutions have shifted to the concept of accountability in the managerial style. Managers focus on a management which comprises transparency, honesty and democracy. The American Institute of Certified Planners states that accountability which aligns with Codes of Ethics is a key element in serving the public with holistic and honest. In organization, accountability as the key element ensures that law and regulations are followed and managers ensure accurate actions. The purpose of this article is to examine the views of teachers and administrators   toward school principals’ accountability. A qualitative research was used with a case study and a sampling method.  A working group of 56 individuals was used and a necessary information to the participants. Tools for data collection were employed and in this case views on principle accountability were collected through open-ended questions. Data analysis, validity and reliability were analyzed through strategies such as confirmation and demonstrativeness. The findings  show that  teachers and  administrators said that  principals’ accountability is expressed through  being responsible, transparent,  adhering to law and regulations, having an open communication and behaving in an ethical manner. In future research, it is recommended that political and personal matters should not be considered in accountability but rather accountability should focus on education system.

Yingqiang, Z., & Yongjian, S. (2016). Quality Assurance in Higher Education: Reflection, Criticism, and

Change. Chinese Education & Society, 49(1/2), 7-19.

 According to Yingqiang & Yongjian (2016), high education in 21^st century enhances a quality assurance through accountability and technological methods. However, the article asserts that institutions for higher education should shift from quality assurance to quality culture. Even though quality assurance has played an important in higher education institutions, it has been associated with irrational consequences. Thus, there is a need to shift from quality assurance to a holistic quality culture in improving high education. The quality culture will foster communication and build a mutual trust. Quality will be improved through the unity of international institutional culture, community and external holders of higher education. The purpose of this article is to provide a literature review on how quality higher education can be provided by the academic community. This means that there should be an internal control with institutions and stakeholders. Note that the quality assurance does not offer power and responsibility. Thus, quality culture will provide a shared responsibility and mutual benefits between stakeholders and subordinates.  Other important point in this article is that an internal quality culture will foster higher performance since it will focus on academic work in a constructive manner. A quality culture means that institutions of higher education will focus on achieving mission and goals through uniting multiple stakeholders   in negotiation and dialogue. The internal stakeholders such as administrators and students will focus on self-improvement in achieving the goals. In addition, leaders will become accountable and strive to employ a proficient management such as quality thinking.

Chen P. Daniel &Haynes M. (2016). Transparency for Whom? Impacts of Accountability Movements

for Institutional Researchers and Beyond. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESEARCH,

2015 (166), 11-21. Doi: 10.1002/ir.20127

Chen & Haynes (2016) affirms that transparency and accountability are important elements in higher education institutions. Transparency is important as it promotes quality education which is provided through fulfilling the need of students as well the society.  To provide transparency, institutional members are required to adhere to rules and regulations and ensure efficiency and effectiveness when performing actions. Governmental educations and accreditation agencies should ensure accountability in providing quality education to students. In higher education institutions, accountability and transparency are key elements needed in students’ learning, career preparation and overall education impact. Institutions on education ensure high level of accountability through provision of resources, funding and training.  Transparency and accountability are important in private entities as they ensure effective college ranking and ratings which are used by publishers. Society and students also benefits from accountability in that educated citizens promotes a democratic society and students’ increases performance. In 21^st century, accountability is needed to fulfill the societal expectations especially on areas of budget priorities, employer expectations, enrollment patterns and more. Higher education must show the public accountability and meet the changing societal expectations. For example in 2013, President Obama promised to provide an affordable education and established a plan for a college rating system for access and affordability.

Part 2

Dissertation research topic:  Accountability in education

In the field of education, a topic of interest   is accountability in education.  In 21^st century, accountability in education is an important tool in improving students’ performance   and preparing them to enter in real the world. The main focus will be on researching whether accountability in education improves education performance. In the annotated bibliography, I have learnt that education accountability is a process where members in the education institution are required to show responsibility and adhere to rules and regulation in order to produce quality performance. I also learn that in education accountability, education partners are required to have a shared understanding and strive to achieve the key values which are fairness and respect.  In addition, education system is associated with a democratic system and this means that the purpose of education is to provide quality education to students as well the society. To show accountability, education partner must values all students   and protect the interest of the society.  In education system, acceptability system focuses on developing a high level of career readiness through providing   powerful indicators of achievement. Generally, the whole research will show that in the education system, education partners are required to show administrative accountability (rules and regulation), professional accountability (norms and values) and performance accountability (effectiveness and efficiency).

Reference

Mbiti, I. M. (2016). The Need for Accountability in Education in Developing Countries. Journal Of

Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 109-132. doi:10.1257/jep.30.3.109

Erdağ, C. (2017). Accountability Policies at Schools: A Study of Path Analysis. Educational Sciences:

Theory & Practice, 17(4), 1405-1432. doi:10.12738/estp.2017.4.0362

Argon, T. (2015). Teacher and Administrator Views on School Principals' Accountability. Educational

Sciences: Theory & Practice, 15(4), 925-944. doi:10.12738/estp.2015.4.2467

Yingqiang, Z., & Yongjian, S. (2016). Quality Assurance in Higher Education: Reflection, Criticism, and

Change. Chinese Education & Society, 49(1/2), 7-19.

Chen P. Daniel &Haynes M. (2016). Transparency for Whom? Impacts of Accountability Movements for

Institutional Researchers and Beyond. NEW DIRECTIONS FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESEARCH, 2015

(166), 11-21. Doi: 10.1002/ir.20127

Inclusion in Special Education

For a long time, students with disabilities have been left out when it comes to education and other matters. Therefore, for this prime reason, I chose the topic of inclusion in the special education to ensure that these students are no longer discriminated and will have a chance to acquire knowledge. Just like any other child, children with disability have the right to education and which is fair accordingly. It is important to ensure that discrimination and negligence, which affect children with disabilities, come to an end (Miller & Tovey, 1996). This paper will majorly deal with improving inclusion in the special education as well as state its importance.

Inclusion is a term that is widely used and has several meanings. According to this paper, inclusion describes the process of ensuring that students or individuals with disabilities can secure the opportunity to learn alongside their non-disabled peers or individuals respectively, with equal opportunities accorded to them (Bakken & Obiakor, 2016).

The number of children with disabilities that receive normal education services is considered to be 13 percent of the total number of such children (Taylor, 2006). Data to be collected will include whether the children with special needs find it more comfortable to interact with the other disabled children rather than with the non-disabled. Several advantages are linked to the improvement of inclusion in the special education such as reduced stigma among the disabled children. Separation of the children may lead to stigmatization among children of the same peer, which may affect the general performance of the children in the classroom as well as their health. In addition, inclusion promotes differentiated instruction during the learning process whereby the instructor pays individual attention to the children, providing a better understanding. Thus, there is more reason to fight for the improvement of inclusion in special education. Special education also ensures that the children get an undivided attention from the educators which will, as a result, improve their performance. 

References

Bakken, J., & Obiakor, F. (Eds.). (2016). General and special education inclusion in an age of change: Impact on students with disabilities. Bingley, UK: Emarald.

Miller, E., & Tovey, R. (1996). Inclusion and special education. Cambridge, UK: Harvard College.

Taylor, G. (2006). Trends in special education: Projections for the next decade. Lewiston, ME: Edwin Mellen Press.