Part 1

Paracetamol and Ketine’s Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics

Paracetamol is a painkiller and also reduces fever. Medics are yet to define its active mechanisms. The drug is also used to treat various illness such as headache and arthritis. It reduces pain (Gibb, & Anderson, 2008). However, it does not have any influence on internal inflammation and join swellings. There are numerous paracetamol brands accessing in various medical outlets. Paracetamol can only be used under recommended dosage. More so, the drug can combine with other over-the counter-drugs to make other types of medicine.

Paracetamol is a p-aminophenol imitation which demonstrates analgesic and antipyretic actions. The drug does not have anti-inflammatory actions. Paracetamol generates analgesia by inhibiting prostaglandin amalgamation. The physical structure of contains a key analgesic effect initiated via serotonergic trails (Allegaert et al., 2013). Due to its anti-inflammatory effects, the medicine rarely interferes with cylindrical emissions of uric acid which in turn retains the acid-base balance when administered in correct doses. In addition, paracetamol cannot interfere with hemostasis and the blood clotting process. Patients rarely get allergic reactions from paracetamol. The only method of administration is orally. The non-inflammatory pathway and exertion impact of the drug enabled patients to actually relive pain due to the consequential effect which influences thromboxane chemicals within hypertensive agents and platelet aggregation mechanisms.

  On the other hand, Ketamine is a drug used in initiating and preserving anesthesia. It causes a trance-like state once injected into a patient’s system (Zanos et al., 2018). The drug hinders sensory perceptions. It can be used on both humans and veterinary services. In 2019, the drug was certified for the treatment of depressed patients experiencing suicidal thoughts and character

 In the past five decades Ketamine proved to be a harmless anesthetic medicine with analgesic qualities. The energetic enantiomer in Ketamine is positive. Ketamine is digested in the form of nor-ketamine, a dynamic metabolite (Morgan et al., 2012). Throughout its interaction within the human body, the drug breaks down into components which can be easily interpreted in the sensory inputs and may even reach receiving regions but some parts of the body may fail to decipher its functions. Ketamine advances the descending inhibits serotoninergic routines and affects anti depressive nerves. The analgesic impact of the medicine continues and binds to plasma saturations within the hypnotic zones. Activation of the ketamine chemicals enables or triggers D- Aspartate receptors due to the long term effects it might have on hyperalgesia ad opioids. The antagonistic nature of the drug tends to initiate the nervous receptors and initiates the sleepy or drowsy nature associated with the drug. Thus, ketamine is a racemic concentration of S and R ketamine groups. The dissociative characteristics are commonly known for the analgesic impact it has on people. Ketamine is a phencyclidine compounds and functions mainly as an antagonist of the N receptors (Domino, & Warner, 2010). The drug lacks gamma affinities hence can be absorbed in different parts of the central nervous systems. Ketamine has a chiral physical arrangement made up of optical isomers.

Part II

Clinical Use

Paracetamol is used to relief pain and minimizes fever. Paracetamol can be used to treat conditions such headaches and toothaches. In mild arthritis, it reduces aching but does not hinder the internal inflammations and swellings on jointed regions (Zanos et al., 2018). Before administering the medicine, one has to ensure that he or she has no past hypersensitive reaction to paracetamol. For instance, if a patient is an alcoholic, suffering from liver disease, it might be prudent to seek a medic’s advice before taking paracetamol. The effects of paracetamol on an unborn child are not yet known. Before a pregnant woman takes paracetamol, she should first inform a doctor (Domino, & Warner, 2010). This is because paracetamol can be absorbed into the breast milk and eventually harm an infant. More so, paracetamol should be taken based on the label and instructions from a certified medic. Any patient should not take more than the recommended dosage (Allegaert et al., 2013). For example, each adult only needs to consume 1 gram in 24 hours. If a patient consumes alcohol, he or she needs to see a doctor before taking the drug. In fact anybody who consumes more than three glasses of alcohol should not take more than 2 grams of paracetamol within 24 hours. In terms age, there are different pediatric paracetamol meant to treat children. Anyone aged two years and below should not take paracetamol.

            On the other hand clinicians use Ketamine to reduce or treat pain. Ketamine is made up of water and lipids hence is soluble in most solvents (Morgan et al., 2012). Also, it is administered in different modes so that medical experts can cure various treatments with the drug. However, the most common mode of Ketamine administration is through intravenous modes. It is vital to note that during emergencies, the medicine cannot cater to teenagers and obese patients. Over time, medics have made it possible to administer Ketamine through intraosseous means hence making the drug more effective. The oral bio accessibility of Ketamine causes extreme vomiting hence patients are not advised against oral administration of the drug. In terms of side effects, Ketamine causes extreme nausea and vomiting. On a positive note, Ketamine does not affect respiratory systems when injected slowly. Ketamine might increase saliva secretion due to airway blockage. While in therapy Ketamine is used in the management of extreme pain. Besides, post-operative mechanisms incorporate ketamine in order to increase analgesic needs of the patients under the operating table. Nevertheless, is primarily preferred than other medicines under the same category such as propofol.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Allegaert, K., Naulaers, G., Vanhaesebrouck, S., & Anderson, B. J. (2013). The paracetamol concentration‐effect relation in neonates. Pediatric Anesthesia, 23(1), 45-50.

Domino, E. F., & Warner, D. S. (2010). Taming the ketamine tiger. The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, 113(3), 678-684.

Gibb, I. A., & Anderson, B. J. (2008). Paracetamol (acetaminophen) pharmacodynamics: interpreting the plasma concentration. Archives of disease in childhood, 93(3), 241-247.

Morgan, C. J., Curran, H. V., & Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs (ISCD). (2012). Ketamine use: a review. Addiction, 107(1), 27-38.

Zanos, P., Moaddel, R., Morris, P. J., Riggs, L. M., Highland, J. N., Georgiou, P., ... & Gould, T. D. (2018). Ketamine and ketamine metabolite pharmacology: insights into therapeutic mechanisms. Pharmacological Reviews, 70(3), 621-660.